Przemyśl, the second oldest city in southern Poland, for centuries served as the guardian of the country's eastern borders. Its symbol is the monumental Przemyśl Fortress, whose Lower Sanok Gate is one of the best-preserved elements of this gigantic fortification complex. Built in the late 19th century by the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the fortress was the third largest fortification in Europe, second only to the fortifications of Antwerp and Verdun. The Lower Sanok Gate, with its distinctive brick facade and massive walls, was one of the key checkpoints on the city's southern defense line.

The history of the fortress is fascinating - during World War I it withstood a 173-day siege by Russian troops, the longest siege in Europe since the Crimean War. Walking through the preserved fortifications, you can almost hear the echoes of the past - the sounds of drill by soldiers of the multinational Austro-Hungarian army, among whom served Poles, Ukrainians, Czechs and Hungarians. Local guides often cite the legend of mysterious tunnels connecting the various forts, which were supposed to allow soldiers to move and transport supplies unnoticed. Although historians approach these stories with caution, some of the underground passages did indeed exist.

Today, the Lower Sanok Gate and the surrounding forts are not only a tourist attraction, but also a venue for cultural events and historical reenactments. Affordability of the tour is at an average level, making it an attractive option for families. It is worth planning a visit during the summer, when re-enactments of World War I battles and camp life are organized. For lovers of militaria and military history, the fortress offers the opportunity to see original pieces of weapons and equipment of soldiers.

Not far from the fortress rises the majestic Casimir Castle, towering over the city since the 14th century. Built on the initiative of Casimir the Great on a hill where a defensive fortress previously existed, the castle has witnessed the turbulent history of the borderland. Destroyed and rebuilt many times, it combines Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque elements. The observation deck offers a breathtaking panorama of the San valley and surrounding hills.

The castle hides many secrets and legends. One of them tells of an underground passage connecting it to the Benedictine monastery, which was supposed to serve as an escape route during sieges. Another legend tells of the ghost of Princess Maria, the daughter of a Ruthenian prince, who fell in love with a Polish knight against her father's wishes and to this day is said to walk the castle's chambers on moonless nights.

Today, the castle is home to local cultural institutions, including the Przemysl Center for Culture and Science. It hosts concerts, exhibitions and educational events. Visitors can enjoy reconstructed chambers, archaeological displays and temporary exhibitions on the history of the region. Ticket prices are affordable, making the castle accessible to a wide range of tourists.

Premier hides its secrets not only on the surface, but also underground. The Underground Tourist Route in Przemysl is a fascinating journey through the city's history. Starting under the Main Square, the route leads through a system of 16th-century cellars and corridors that for centuries served merchants to store goods. During the 45-minute guided tour, tourists learn not only about the history of the underground, but also about the daily life of the city's former residents.

The oldest parts of the underground remember the times when Przemyśl was an important point on the trade route between East and West. The damp, cool cellars were used to store Hungarian wines, spices from the Orient and other valuable goods. The guides tell of the mysterious signs left by former merchants on the walls to protect their possessions from thieves and evil forces.

Legend has it that the underground hides the entrance to a tunnel leading all the way to the Casimir Castle, through which, at the time of Tartar and Turkish invasions, residents could flee the city. Although archaeologists have not confirmed the existence of such a passage, the story sparks the imagination of visitors. Another fascinating story is the one about a Przemysl alchemist who was said to have conducted experiments in one of the cellars to discover the philosopher's stone.

The tour is open year-round, and can only be visited with a guide. Ticket prices are at an average level, with discounts available for groups and families. It is advisable to remember to dress warmer even in summer, as the temperature in the underground remains constant at around 8-10 degrees Celsius.

Once on the surface, you should direct your steps to one of the most original museums in Poland - the Museum of Bells and Pipes. It is housed in a historic 17th century clock tower, which is a valuable architectural monument in its own right. The museum presents two craft traditions that for centuries have been the hallmark of Przemysl - bell-founding (bell casting) and pipe-making.

The bell collection includes exhibits from the Middle Ages to the present day, including unique church bells from the Polish-Ukrainian borderlands. Visitors can learn about the process of bell production, from mold preparation to final tuning. Particularly valuable is the collection of bells rescued from Orthodox churches that were destroyed or abandoned after the 'Vistula' action in 1947, when the communist authorities displaced the Ukrainian population from southeastern Poland.

The second part of the exhibition is devoted to pipes, the production of which developed in Przemyśl in the 18th century. The city was famous for its clay pipes, which were exported to many European countries. The museum features both simple pipes used by ordinary people and richly decorated specimens made to order for the nobility and aristocracy. An interesting feature are patriotic pipes from the Partition period, on which camouflaged national symbols were placed.

The museum organizes workshops demonstrating traditional pipe-making methods, during which you can try your hand at the craft. Ticket prices are affordable, making the museum an attractive option for families and school groups. It's a good idea to plan your visit in the morning hours, when there are fewer visitors, allowing you to explore the exhibits in peace and listen to the fascinating stories of the guides.

Leaving Przemyśl and heading west in the Subcarpathian region, you reach Krosno, a city that has been famous for centuries for its unique glassmaking craft. The Glass Heritage Center in Krosno is a modern museum that presents the history and present day of this fascinating craft in an interactive way. Located in the heart of the city, in historic townhouses on Blich Street, the center combines museum functions with craft demonstrations and workshops for visitors.

The history of glassmaking in Krosno dates back to the 14th century, when the first craftsmen began making simple vessels and ornaments from glass. However, the real heyday of this field came in the 17th and 18th centuries, when Krosno glassware gained recognition at royal and magnate courts. Legend has it that the secret recipes of Krosno glass arrived from Venice along with master glassmakers who fled the island of Murano, breaking the strict ban on taking the secrets of the craft beyond the borders of the Republic of Venice. They faced the death penalty for betraying the secrets, so they sought refuge in remote corners of Europe, including the Polish Podkarpacie region.

The Glass Heritage Center features both historical exhibits and contemporary works of art made of glass. Particularly impressive is the collection of artistic glass from the interwar period and the communist era, when Krosno glassworks experienced their golden age. Among the exhibits are unique products designed by some of Poland's most prominent artists, such as Zbigniew Horbowy and Barbara Urbanska-Miszczyk.

The center's biggest attraction, however, are the craft demonstrations, during which visitors can watch master glassmakers at work. Glass metallurgy is a spectacular process - heated to over 1,000 degrees Celsius, glass is molded with traditional tools into true works of art. Visitors can see how elegant goblets, vases or figurines are created from the shapeless mass. For the adventurous, workshops have been prepared, during which, under the guidance of experienced artisans, you can make a simple glass decoration yourself.

The center offers a variety of tour programs tailored to different age groups and interests. Ticket prices are at an average level, with discounts available for families and organized groups. It is especially worth planning a visit during the periodically organized glass festivals, when artists from all over the world come to Krosno to present their skills and works.

Krosno is not only glass - the city also impresses with its Renaissance-style market square, historic churches and charming old town streets. It is worth noting the architectural details of the townhouses, which are often decorated with glass elements - another proof of how deeply the glassmaking tradition has become part of the city's identity.

A trip through Podkarpacie is a fascinating lesson in the history and culture of the borderland. Przemyśl and Krosno, although different in character and heritage, have one thing in common - they are living witnesses of centuries of interpenetration of Polish, Ukrainian and other Central and Eastern European cultures. Przemyśl's mighty fortifications are a reminder of the region's strategic importance, while Krosno's glassmaking traditions show how artistic craftsmanship flourished at the intersection of different traditions. A visit to these cities is not only a journey in space, but also in time - to an era when borders were more fluid and borderland culture created a unique identity for the region, the echoes of which we can still admire today.